Electric battery
One or more electrochemical cells with external connections for powering electrical equipment make up an electric battery, which is a source of electric power.
A battery's positive terminal functions as the cathode and its negative terminal as the anode while it is supplying electricity. The source of the electrons that will move from the terminal labeled "negative" to the terminal labeled "positive" is an external electric circuit. Redox reactions transform high-energy reactants into lower-energy products when a battery is coupled to an external electric load, and the free-energy difference is sent to the external circuit as electrical energy. In the past, a device made of numerous cells was specifically referred to as a "battery," but today, devices made of a single cell are also included in this definition.
As the electrode materials are irreversibly modified after discharge, primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used only once and then destroyed; an example of this is the alkaline battery used in flashlights and a variety of portable electronic gadgets. Using an applied electric current, secondary (rechargeable) batteries can be discharged and recharged numerous times; reverse current can restore the electrodes' original chemical makeup. Examples include the lithium-ion batteries used in portable gadgets like laptops and cell phones as well as the lead-acid batteries used in automobiles.
Batteries are available in a variety of sizes and shapes, ranging from tiny cells used to power hearing aids and wristwatches to, at the greatest end, enormous battery banks the size of rooms that provide backup or emergency power for telephone exchanges and computer data centers.
Compared to typical fuels like gasoline, batteries have substantially lower specific energy (energy per unit mass). The better efficiency of electric motors in transferring electrical energy to mechanical work when compared to combustion engines in automobiles partially offsets this.
History
Invention
Although it has been hypothesized that the Baghdad Battery (c. 150 BC–650 AD) was an apparatus that stored electric current, this is not conclusive.
When conducting electrical experiments in 1749 using a network of connected Leyden jar capacitors, Benjamin Franklin coined the term "battery." Franklin assembled many of the jars into what he called a "battery," using the military term for a set of interconnected weapons. A stronger charge might be held and more power would be accessible upon discharge by increasing the number of holding containers.
The first electrochemical battery, the voltaic pile, was created and described by Italian physicist Alessandro Volta in 1800. A long-lasting constant current could be generated by this stack of copper and zinc plates that were spaced apart by brine-soaked paper disks. Volta was unaware that chemical processes were the cause of the voltage. He believed that his cells were an endless supply of energy and that, contrary to what Michael Faraday demonstrated in 1834, the corrosion effects at the electrodes linked with them were only a little inconvenience.
Although early batteries were extremely useful for experiments, in actuality their voltages fluctuated and they were unable to sustainably supply a large current. The first practical generator of electricity was the Daniell cell, developed in 1836 by British scientist John Frederic Daniell. It quickly rose to industry standards and was widely used as a power source for electrical telegraph networks. It was composed of a copper pot containing a copper sulfate solution, a zinc electrode, and an unglazed earthenware container containing sulfuric acid.
These wet cells employed liquid electrolytes, which, if not handled carefully, might leak and spill. Many contained their components in glass jars, making them brittle and sometimes deadly. Wet cells were not suited for portable appliances due to these properties. Portable electrical devices became possible at the tail end of the nineteenth century with the development of dry cell batteries, which used paste instead of liquid electrolyte.
In the past, wet cells were used in vacuum tube batteries for the "A" battery (to power the filament) and dry cells for the "B" battery (to provide the plate voltage).
Future
Annual battery consumption increased by 30% between 2010 and 2018, totaling 180 Gwh in 2018. According to conservative projections, the growth rate would be kept at around 25%, with the demand peaking at 2600 Gwh in 2030. Cost savings are also anticipated to boost demand even more, reaching up to 3562 GwH.
The electrification of transportation and widespread deployment in electricity grids, supported by anthropogenic climate change-driven shifts away from fossil-fuel combusted energy sources to cleaner, renewable sources, and more stringent emission regimes, are significant factors contributing to the electric battery industry's high rate of growth.
Distributed electric batteries that have smart meters and are connected to smart grids for demand response, such as those found in home energy storage systems and battery electric vehicles (vehicle-to-grid), are active players in smart power supply networks. Because electric batteries have longer lifespan, new methods of reuse, including echelon use of partially used batteries, increase their overall value while also lowering the cost of energy storage and reducing pollution/emission impacts. After serving for between 5 and 8 years, vehicle electric batteries that have less than 80% of their original capacity are reused into backup power sources or renewable energy storage systems.
Grid scale energy storage is the extensive use of batteries to gather and store energy from the grid or a power plant, then release that energy at a later time to deliver electricity or other grid services as needed. Grid scale energy storage is a crucial part of intelligent power supply networks, whether it is turnkey or distributed.
Chemistry and principles
Chemical energy is immediately converted to electrical energy in batteries. The difference in the cohesive or bond energies of the metals, oxides, or molecules participating in the electrochemical reaction is frequently the source of the electrical energy generated. For instance, high-energy metals Zn and Li, which unlike transition metals are not supported by d-electron bonding, can retain energy. Batteries are constructed so that the energetically advantageous redox reaction can only take place when electrons flow through the circuit's exterior portion.
A battery is made up of a certain quantity of voltaic cells. A conductive electrolyte containing metal cations connects each cell's two half-cells in series. Electrolyte and the negative electrode, to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate, are found in one half of the cell; electrolyte and the positive electrode, to which cations (positively charged ions) migrate, are found in the other half of the cell. At the cathode, cations are reduced (electron addition), whereas at the anode, metal atoms are oxidized (electron removal). Different electrolytes are employed in some cells for each half-cell; in these cases, a separator is utilized to stop the electrolytes from mixing while still allowing ions to move between the half-cells to complete the electrical circuit.
Each half-cell possesses an electromotive force (emf, measured in volts) relative to a standard. The difference between the emfs of a cell's half-cells is its net emf. The net emf, or difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions, is therefore displaystyle if the electrodes have emfs of displaystyle mathcal mathcalE 1 and displaystyle mathcal mathcal2.
The terminal voltage (difference), which is expressed in volts, is the electrical driving force or / displaystyle Delta V batdisplaystyleDelta V bat across the terminals of a cell.
The open-circuit voltage, which is equal to the cell's emf, is the terminal voltage of a cell when it is not being charged or discharged. The terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller than the open-circuit voltage due to internal resistance, whereas the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging is greater than the open-circuit voltage. The terminal voltage of a perfect cell would remain constant until it was depleted, at which point it would drop to zero because it has very little internal resistance. When fully discharged, a cell of this type would have produced 1.5 joules of work if it maintained 1.5 volts and produced a charge of one coulomb.
In actual cells, when a cell is discharged, its internal resistance rises and its open-circuit voltage falls. When voltage and resistance are plotted against time, a curve usually results; the shape of the curve changes depending on the internal organization and chemistry used.
The energy released by the chemical interactions between a cell's electrodes and electrolyte determines the voltage that develops across its terminals. Similar to how NiCd and NiMH cells have different chemistries but around the same emf of 1.2 volts, alkaline and zinc-carbon batteries have a different chemistry but roughly the same emf of 1.5 volts. Lithium cells have emfs of three volts or more due to the significant electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds.
The electrolyte for a cell can be almost any liquid or moist substance that contains enough ions to be electrically conducting. It is possible to generate very small amounts of electricity by inserting two electrodes made of various metals into a lemon, potato, etc. as a novelty or science demonstration.
Two coins (such as a nickel and a penny) plus a piece of paper towel dipped in salt water can be used to create a voltaic pile. Even though a pile like this produces very little voltage, when enough of them are stacked in series, they can temporarily replace standard batteries.
Types
Primary and secondary batteries
The two types of batteries are primary and secondary:
Primary batteries are intended to be used until their energy is depleted before being thrown away. They cannot be recharged since the majority of their chemical reactions are irreversible. The battery stops producing current and becomes unusable when the reactant supply is depleted.
By supplying electric current to the cell, secondary batteries can be recharged, or have their chemical reactions turned around. The initial chemical reactants are renewed in this process, allowing for numerous uses and recharges.
By switching out the electrodes, several primary batteries that were utilized, for instance, in telegraph circuits, were made functional again. Due to internal corrosion, electrolyte loss, and the dissipation of the active components, secondary batteries cannot be continuously recharged.
When assembled, primary batteries, also known as primary cells, can start producing electricity. These are frequently employed in portable devices with low current drain, intermittent use, or use far from a source of backup power, like alarm and communication systems when backup power is only occasionally available. Since chemical reactions are not always easily reversible and active materials might not always revert to their original forms, disposable primary cells cannot be consistently recharged. Manufacturers of batteries advise against trying to recharge primary cells.
Although they often have better energy densities than rechargeable batteries, disposable batteries struggle with high-drain applications that include loads that are less than 75 ohms (75 ). Alkaline batteries and zinc-carbon batteries are common disposable battery types.
Prior to usage, secondary batteries, often referred to as secondary cells or rechargeable batteries, must be charged; they are typically built with active components that are discharged. Applying electric current to rechargeable batteries causes the chemical changes that take place during discharge and use to be reversed. Chargers are devices that deliver the proper current.
Lead-acid batteries, which are frequently used in boats and automobiles, are the earliest type of rechargeable battery. In order to ensure the safe dispersal of the hydrogen gas produced during overcharging, this technology contains liquid electrolyte in an open container and necessitates that the battery be kept upright and the vicinity be well ventilated. In relation to the quantity of electrical energy it can provide, the lead-acid battery is quite heavy. It is widely used in situations where capacity (above 10 Ah) is more critical than weight and handling considerations because to its low manufacturing cost and strong surge current levels. Modern vehicle batteries, which can often generate a peak current of 450 amperes, are an example of a common application.
Composition
Galvanic cells, electrolytic cells, fuel cells, flow cells, and voltaic heaps are just a few examples of the several types of electrochemical cells that have been created, each having a different chemical process and design.
The electrolyte in a wet cell battery is liquid. Other names for the device include flooded cell (since the entire interior is submerged in liquid) and vented cell (because operating-related gases can escape into the atmosphere). Wet cells, which were invented before dry cells, are frequently employed as teaching aids in electrochemistry. They can be created using standard laboratory equipment, including beakers, to show how electrochemical cells operate. Understanding corrosion requires knowledge of a certain class of wet cell called a concentration cell.
Primary cells (non-rechargeable) or secondary cells may be wet cells (rechargeable). All usable primary batteries, including the Daniell cell, were initially created as open-top glass jar wet cells. The Leclanche cell, Grove cell, Bunsen cell, Chromic acid cell, Clark cell, and Weston cell are further primary wet cells. The first dry cells were modified to use the Leclanche cell chemistry. Although gel cells have been utilized in many locations in place of wet cells, wet cells are still employed in automotive batteries and in industry for standby power for switchgear, telephony, or huge uninterruptible power supplies.
Typically, lead-acid or nickel-cadmium cells are used in these applications. A molten salt is used as the electrolyte in molten salt batteries, which can be primary or secondary batteries. They must be highly insulated to retain heat because they work under high temperatures.
A paste electrolyte, containing just enough moisture to permit current passage, is used in dry cells. In contrast to a wet cell, a dry cell contains no free liquid and may function in any direction without spilling, making it appropriate for portable equipment. As opposed to the early wet cells, which were often delicate glass jars with lead rods dangling from the open top, they required to be handled carefully to prevent spills. Before the introduction of the gel battery, lead-acid batteries did not achieve the safety and portability of the dry cell. The zinc-carbon battery, also known as the dry Leclanché cell, is a typical dry cell that has a nominal voltage of 1.5 volts, the same as an alkaline battery (as they both use the same zinc-manganese dioxide compound).
A typical dry cell consists of a central rod-shaped carbon cathode and a zinc anode that is typically shaped like a cylindrical pot. A paste of ammonium chloride serves as the electrolyte next to the zinc anode. A second paste made of ammonium chloride and manganese dioxide, the latter of which serves as a depolarizer, fills the empty area between the electrolyte and carbon cathode. In some designs, zinc chloride is used in place of ammonium chloride.
A backup battery can be kept disassembled for a very long time (unactivated and producing no power) (perhaps years). When a battery is required, it is constructed (for example, by adding electrolyte), and after assembly, it is charged and ready for use. For instance, the impact of firing a gun may activate a battery for an electronic artillery fuze. The battery is turned on and the fuze's circuits are powered when the acceleration breaks an electrolyte capsule. Typically, reserve batteries are made to last for only a few seconds or minutes after extended storage (years). When submerged in water, a water-activated battery for oceanographic equipment or military purposes activates.
A new type of solid-state battery was created by a team led by John Goodenough, the inventor of the lithium-ion battery, and according to a press release from the University of Texas at Austin, it "could lead to safer, faster-charging, longer-lasting rechargeable batteries for handheld mobile devices, electric cars, and stationary energy storage." Additionally, it is claimed that the solid-state battery has "three times the energy density," extending its usable life in electric vehicles, for instance. Since the method uses less expensive, environmentally beneficial ingredients like sodium that is taken from seawater, it should also be more environmentally benign. Additionally, they live a lot longer.
Sony has created a biological battery that uses sugar to produce power in a manner akin to the mechanisms seen in living things. The battery produces electricity by using enzymes that digest carbohydrates.
In the automobile sector, the sealed valve regulated lead-acid battery (VRLA battery) is a well-liked alternative to the lead-acid wet cell. The immobilized sulfuric acid electrolyte used by the VRLA battery reduces the possibility of leaking and increases shelf life. The electrolyte is immobilized by VRLA batteries. The two varieties are:
A semi-solid electrolyte is used in gel batteries (also known as "gel cells").
Batteries with absorbed glass mats (AGM) absorb the electrolyte in a unique fiberglass mat.
Several sealed "dry cell" varieties of portable rechargeable batteries are also available; these are useful in devices like mobile phones and laptop computers. These cells come in nickel-cadmium (NiCd), nickel-zinc (NiZn), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), and lithium-ion (Li-ion) varieties (in order of decreasing cost and increasing power density). The market for dry cell rechargeables is dominated by Li-ion by a considerable margin. NiCd is still used in power tools, two-way radios, and medical equipment, although NiMH has mostly superseded it due to its higher capacity.
Nanoball batteries, which allow for a discharge rate about 100x greater than current batteries, and smart battery packs with state-of-charge monitors and battery protection circuits, which prevent damage on over-discharge, are examples of battery developments from the 2000s. USBCELL, which enables charging an AA battery through a USB connector, is another example of a battery with embedded electronics. Secondary cells are able to be charged prior to shipping thanks to low self-discharge (LSD).
The longest and highest solar-powered flight employed lithium-sulfur batteries.
Consumer and industrial grades
All different kinds of batteries are produced in both consumer and industrial grades. Industrial-grade batteries, which are more expensive, may have chemistries that have better power-to-size ratios, lower self-discharge and, consequently, longer life when not in use, greater leakage resistance, and, for instance, the ability to withstand the high temperature and humidity associated with medical autoclave sterilization.
Combination and management
The gadget that uses them requires standard-format batteries to be put into the battery holder. When a gadget doesn't use standard-format batteries, they're usually bundled into a special battery pack that may store several cells and has extra features like a battery management system and a battery isolator to make sure the batteries within are charged and drained equally.
Sizes
From tiny button cells used in electronic watches to the No. 6 cell used in signal circuits or other long-term applications, consumers have access to a variety of primary batteries. Very big batteries can power a submarine, stabilize an electrical system, and aid in balancing peak demands because secondary cells come in very large quantities.
Tesla constructed the largest battery in the world as of 2017 in South Australia. The capacity is 129 MWh. A $500 million battery in Hebei Province, China, was constructed in 2013 and has a 36 MWh storage capacity. There was also a sizable Ni-Cd battery in Fairbanks, Alaska. It was 1,300 tonnes in weight and spanned an area of 2,000 square meters, larger than a football field. In the case of a blackout, backup power will be provided by this ABB product. Up to seven minutes of 40 MW electricity can be generated by the battery. [43] For storing wind energy, sodium-sulfur batteries have been employed. The Auwahi wind farm in Hawaii has a 4.4 MWh battery system that can supply 11 MW for 25 minutes while maintaining output stability.
Comparison
Battery chemistry determines a number of crucial cell characteristics, including voltage, energy density, flammability, possible cell architectures, operational temperature range, and shelf life.
Performance, capacity and discharge
The internal chemistry, current drain, and temperature are just a few of the variables that can cause a battery's properties to change throughout the course of a load cycle, a charge cycle, and over its lifespan. A battery cannot produce as much power when the temperature is low. As a result, some automobile owners add battery warmers—small electric heating pads that keep the car battery warm—in colder locations.
The quantity of electric charge that a battery can deliver at its rated voltage is referred to as its capacity. The capacity of the cell increases with the amount of electrode material present. Despite developing the same open-circuit voltage, a smaller cell has a lower capacity than a larger cell with the same chemistry. Amp-hours (Ah) are common quantities used to assess capacity. The current that a brand-new battery can reliably produce for 20 hours at 68 °F (20 °C), while remaining above a predetermined terminal voltage per cell, is typically used to calculate a battery's rated capacity. At room temperature, a battery with a 100 A/h rating, for instance, may deliver 5 A for 20 hours.
A battery's ability to deliver a certain percentage of its stored charge is affected by a number of variables, including the battery's chemistry, the rate at which the charge is delivered (current), the required terminal voltage, the length of time the battery is stored, the ambient temperature, and other elements.
The capacity decreases as the discharge rate rises.
Peukert's law provides an approximation of the relationship between current, discharge time, and capacity for a lead acid battery (across a typical range of current values):
Displaystyle t=frac Q P Ik, frac Q P Ik, frac Q P Ik
where
Q P displaystyle
The capacity at a discharge rate of 1 amp is known as Q P.
Displaystyle I is the amount of battery current being used (A).
The maximum duration (in hours) that a battery can last is called "displaystyle t".
displaystyle k has a constant value of about 1.3.
Batteries lose capacity when they are kept for a long time or drained to a tiny percentage of their capacity because there are usually irreversible side reactions present that consume charge carriers without creating current. Internal self-discharge is the term for this phenomena. Furthermore, extra side reactions that arise during battery recharging may lower the battery's capacity for further discharges. After a certain number of recharges, the battery effectively loses all of its capacity and stops providing energy. Battery efficiency varies due to internal energy losses and restrictions on how quickly ions may move through the electrolyte. Over a minimum threshold, low-rate discharge yields more battery capacity than high-rate draining.
Unless load limits are exceeded, installing batteries with different A-h ratings has no impact on the operation of devices rated for a particular voltage (although it may change the operation interval). As with alkaline batteries, high-drain loads like digital cameras can lower total capacity. For instance, despite what its stated capacity implies, a battery rated at 2 A/h for a 10- or 20-hour discharge could not maintain a current of 1 A for the full two hours.
The pace at which a battery is being charged or drained is measured by the C-rate. It is calculated as the battery's current divided by the maximum theoretical current draw necessary for the battery to operate at its nominal rated capacity for one hour. The units are h1. A battery rarely operates at nameplate rated capacity in just one hour due to internal resistance loss and cellular chemistry. The maximum capacity of a battery is often found at a low C-rate, thus charging or discharging at a greater C-rate shortens the battery's useable life and decreases its capacity.
Datasheets from manufacturers frequently provide graphs of capacity against C-rate curves. The maximum current that a battery can securely provide in a circuit is indicated on batteries by the C-rate rating. The capacity and charge cycles of rechargeable batteries are often rated over a 4-hour (0.25C), 8-hour (0.125C), or longer discharge duration. Manufacturers may grade certain types for discharge lengths much lower than one hour (1C), such as in a computer uninterruptible power supply, however these types may have a short cycle life.
Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO 4) battery technology had the fastest charging and discharging speeds as of 2012, with a full discharge taking 10 to 20 seconds.
Lifespan
For rechargeable batteries, battery life (and its synonym battery lifespan) has two definitions, however for non-chargeable batteries, it only has one. For rechargeables, it can refer to the number of charge/discharge cycles a battery can withstand before failing to function properly or the amount of time a gadget can run on a fully charged battery. These two lives are equivalent for a non-rechargeable since cells, by definition, only survive for one cycle. (The shelf life of a battery refers to how long its performance will be retained after manufacturing.)
All batteries' available capacity decreases as temperature drops. The Zamboni pile, developed in 1812, offers a very long service life without refurbishment or recharging even if it only provides current in the nanoamp range. This is in contrast to the majority of today's batteries. Since 1840, the Oxford Electric Bell has been operating on its original pair of batteries, which are believed to be Zamboni piles, practically continuously.
When kept at room temperature (20-30 °C), disposable batteries typically lose 8 to 20 percent of their initial charge each year. [53] This rate, referred to as the "self-discharge" rate, results from "side" chemical reactions inside the cell that don't produce current even when there isn't any load being applied. Batteries stored at lower temperatures have a decreased rate of side reactions, albeit some can be harmed by freezing. Old rechargeable batteries, particularly nickel-based batteries, self-discharge more quickly than disposable alkaline batteries; a newly charged nickel cadmium (NiCd) battery loses 10% of its charge in the first 24 hours and thereafter declines at a rate of roughly 10% each month.
Modern lithium designs and more recent low self-discharge nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries, however, have a reduced self-discharge rate (but still higher than for primary batteries).
Every time the battery is charged and discharged, the active material on the battery plates undergoes a chemical change. Additionally, active material may be lost owing to physical volume changes, which further reduces the battery's ability to be recharged. When purchased, the majority of nickel-based batteries are partially depleted; therefore, they need to be charged before use. Newer NiMH batteries have a discharge rate of only 15% per year and are ready to use when purchased.
Each cycle of charging and discharging results in some degradation. Electrolyte migration away from the electrodes or active material detaching from the electrodes are the two main causes of degradation. High-capacity NiMH batteries (over 2,500 mAh) survive for roughly 500 cycles while low-capacity NiMH batteries (between 1,700 and 2,000 mAh) can be charged about 1,000 times. In general, NiCd batteries are rated for 1,000 cycles before their internal resistance steadily rises over useable levels. Battery lifespan is shortened by rapid charging, which promotes component changes. A battery may be overcharged and harmed if a charger is unable to recognize when it is fully charged.
NiCd batteries may experience a capacity reduction known as the "memory effect" if they are used in a specific repeating manner. With a few easy steps, the effect can be avoided. Despite having a similar chemistry, NiMH cells are less susceptible to the memory effect.
Rechargeable automotive lead-acid batteries must withstand strain from vibration, shock, and a wide variety of temperatures. Few vehicle batteries endure longer than six years of regular usage due to these pressures and the sulfation of their lead plates. In order to increase current, automotive starting batteries (SLI: Starting, Lighting, Ignition) include numerous thin plates. In general, the life is longer when the plates are thicker. Before being recharged, they are normally just slightly drained. Lead-acid batteries with "deep cycles," as those found in electric golf carts, have substantially thicker plates. The lead-acid battery's main advantage is its low price; nevertheless, its main disadvantages are its big size and weight for a given capacity and voltage.
Because internal resistance generates heat and harms lead-acid batteries when they are recharged, lead-acid batteries should never be discharged to less than 20% of their capacity. A low-charge warning light or a low-charge power cut-off switch are frequently used in deep-cycle lead-acid systems to stop the kind of damage that would limit the battery's lifespan.
By storing the batteries at a low temperature, such as in a refrigerator or freezer, which delays the side reactions, the battery life can be increased. Alkaline batteries' lifespan can be increased by this storage by roughly 5%, while different types of rechargeable batteries can store their charge for considerably longer.
Batteries must be brought back to room temperature in order to attain their optimum voltage; discharging an alkaline battery at 250 mA at 0 °C is only 50% as effective as at 20 °C. Manufacturers of alkaline batteries like Duracell do not advise cooling batteries.
Hazards
Incorrect use or malfunction, such as attempting to recharge a primary (non-rechargeable) battery or a short circuit, are the usual culprits for battery explosions.
When a battery is charged too quickly, an explosive gas mixture of hydrogen and oxygen may be formed quicker than it can leave the battery (for example, through a built-in vent), which can cause pressure to build up inside the battery and eventually cause the case to explode. In severe circumstances, battery chemicals may forcefully spray from the shell and injure. According to a professional assessment of the issue, this form of use "Lithium ions are transported between the anode and the cathode using liquid electrolytes. If a battery cell is charged too quickly, it might induce a short circuit, resulting to explosions and fires".
The most likely time for car batteries to blow up is when a short circuit produces extremely high currents. When these batteries are overcharged, hydrogen, which is extremely explosive, is produced (because of electrolysis of the water in the electrolyte). The amount of overcharging that occurs during typical use is often quite modest, producing little hydrogen that soon dissipates. However, while "jump starting" a car, the high current may result in the quick release of significant amounts of hydrogen, which may ignite explosively when a jumper cable is disconnected, for example.
In addition to leakage or irreparable damage, overcharging (attempting to charge a battery beyond its electrical capacity) can result in a battery explosion. Additionally, it might harm the charger or the gadget that uses the overcharged battery in the future.
As steam accumulates within the sealed box, burning a battery could result in an explosion.
Damaged alkaline battery from a leak
Numerous battery compounds are toxic, corrosive, or both. The chemicals released if leakage occurs, whether accidentally or as a result of spontaneous combustion, could be harmful. For instance, zinc "cans" are frequently used in disposable batteries both as a reactant and as a container for the other reagents.
Lead, mercury, and cadmium are frequently used as an electrode or electrolyte in batteries. To avoid causing environmental harm, batteries must be disposed of when they reach the end of their useful lives. Electronic waste includes, for example, batteries (e-waste). The harmful materials recovered by e-waste recycling services can be used to make new batteries. About 179,000 tons of the almost three billion batteries bought in the US each year are disposed of in landfills.
If eaten, batteries can be dangerous or even death. Small button cells are particularly prone to ingestion by young toddlers. The electrical discharge from the battery during digestion may result in tissue damage; this damage is occasionally severe and might cause death. Disk batteries that have been consumed often do not create issues until they get stuck in the digestive system. The esophagus is the most typical location for disk batteries to become trapped, leading to clinical consequences. Batteries that make it through the esophagus are unlikely to land somewhere else.
The patient's age and battery size affect how likely it is that a disk battery will become lodged in the esophagus. Two babies under a year old had 16 mm disk batteries stuck in their esophagi. [Reference needed] Batteries smaller than 21–23 mm do not cause issues for older kids. Because sodium hydroxide is produced by the battery's current, liquefaction necrosis could happen (usually
at the anode). It has happened as soon as six hours after ingestion for perforation.
Legislation and regulation
Electric battery legislation covers issues including recycling and proper disposal.
The Mercury-Containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act of 1996 established uniform labeling rules for rechargeable batteries, outlawed the sale of mercury-containing batteries in the US, and mandated that rechargeable batteries be simple to remove.
Rechargeable batteries cannot be disposed of in solid garbage in California or New York.
In the US and Canada, the rechargeable battery business runs extensive recycling programs with drop-off locations at neighborhood retailers.
Electric battery legislation covers issues including recycling and proper disposal.
The Mercury-Containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act of 1996 established uniform labeling rules for rechargeable batteries, outlawed the sale of mercury-containing batteries in the US, and mandated that rechargeable batteries be simple to remove.
Rechargeable batteries cannot be disposed of in solid garbage in California or New York.
In the US and Canada, the rechargeable battery business runs extensive recycling programs with drop-off locations at neighborhood retailers.
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